Dead reckoning is navigation by which method?

• A. Navigation by visual landmarks only.
• B. Navigation by computations using airspeed, course, heading, wind direction and speed, groundspeed, and elapsed time.
• C. Navigation by radio beacons only.
• D. Navigation by celestial observations.

Answer: (B)

Dead reckoning estimates your position by starting from a known point and advancing it over time using the aircraft’s motion, calculated from speed, direction, and wind effects. The method relies on turning airspeed and heading into a course and distance, then adjusting for wind to find the actual track and ground speed, and multiplying by elapsed time to determine how far you’ve traveled. By repeatedly applying these calculations, you update your position without needing external references. This is why the description that uses computations with airspeed, course, heading, wind direction and speed, groundspeed, and elapsed time is the correct representation. Other navigation methods depend on external references like visual landmarks, radio beacons, or celestial observations, not on internal calculations from speed, wind, and time.